Tuesday, July 13, 2010
SULAIMAN SAIED TAFIDA
‘DIPLOMACY’
OUTLINE A SHORT HISTORY OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS AMONG ANY PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN STATES OF CHOICE. BY BRINGING OUT TREATIES, PROCEDURES OF PEACE, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN THE RELATIONSHIPS
Diplomacy being a name given to official canals of communications and negotiation between two sovereign nations, involve all aspects of interest representations. It is a practices and institutions by which nations conduct their relations with one another. Originally, the English term diplomatic referred to the care and evaluation of official papers or archives, many of which were treaties. In the 18th century diplomatic documents increasingly meant those pertaining to international relations, and the term diplomatic corps was used to signify the body of ambassadors, envoys, and officials attached to foreign missions. In 1796 the British philosopher Edmund Burke castigated the French for their “double diplomacy” during the Napoleonic Wars; since then the term diplomacy has been associated with international politics and foreign policy. (Michalak 2009)
Even though the name “Diplomacy” has its roots in the 18th century, the act of diplomacy predates the 18th century; evidence is the pre-colonial diplomacy. The pre-colonial diplomacy is the relations in the pre-colonial Africa. Evidence has shown that, there has never being time when any of the African civilizations remains in isolation from each other and, or the world at large (Smith 1973). The letters interchanged between the Mai of Bornu and the Ottoma pasha of Tripoli in 1555, the treaty of truce between Kebbi and the Sokoto caliphate, which led to peace for eight years, are few among the examples. This paper will critically discuss diplomatic relationships between pre-colonial African states. The Kenem Bornu empires and its relations to other African states will be our focal point.
Pre-colonial Africa generally refers to the period before African domination by the European powers. That is before colonialism. Colonialism simply seen as one country’s domination of another country or people—usually achieved through aggressive, often military, actions—and the territory acquired in this
manner. (Cell 2009) This paper will center on the international relationships and diplomacy between the African states that took place before the European intervention into the polity of African states.
Prior to colonialism, heterogeneous Africa was organized into states, nations and localities. Each state has its sets of rules, leadership procedures and culture. Due to its large region and population, there is a struggle for control of power, resources and land. These natural struggles for nature therefore led to means of inter states relationships. Most of the relations either took the form of alliance, subservient or truce; for economic benefit, political alliance or protection. The Alliance of Hausa states in the Sudan and Bornu empires may be sited as good examples. Most of the relations in Sudan are military related, but it will be wrong to generalize, because trade and as well as high governmental relationships between the states were also obvious (Fage 1996).
The Kingdom of Kanem, emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the 9th century AD. Kanem profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of vassal states. Because of the conflicts of the region, around 12th and 14th centuries, the Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples, and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state, centered first in Kanem and then in Bornu, is known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred to as Bornu. (Robert 2009)
The Bornu empire’ practice of using diplomats to negotiate war and peace as well as practical matters such as the development and protection of trade, the conclusion of treaties and the establishment of frontiers indicates the existence of an international system of diplomacy in western Sudan (Fage 1996) for example as early as 11th century, there was exchange of diplomats between bornu and many state in the Sudan.
Around the 11th century, There was exchange of representatives between Bornu and Kanema and between Bornu and Bagirmi. Bornu also exchanges Ambassadors with the Tunis and Egypt in the 13th century. These Ambassadors like modern term has multiplicity of purpose quite apart from serving as the medium of communication and governmental contacts between those empires. They were also used for negotiation intelligence ceremonial functions etc. (Fage 1996)
As in the present times, Diplomacy in the 11th to 13th century Precolonial Africa had accorded different status, to Ambassadors of different states, but they all enjoy a certain diplomatic immunity. There are different accounts that show that Bornu emperor, Mai Idris sends an Ambassodor on a peace Mission to the sultan of Bulala. And most Established hausa lands of these areas. This is evident in the existence of Bornu embassies in Abuja, Sokoto, Zazzau and Katsina. The embassies names are known as Bakon Bornu in Abuja and Sokoto. The Magajin mallam in Zazzau and the office of Mansa in Katsina
Truce and peace treaties where also written within the Sudan in anticipation for protection or trade alliance. Some of these states occasionally ware augmented by the dispatch of visiting embassies. There was also the use of ad hoc diplomacy, usually in response to heart threatening circumstances. The alliance between Mai Usman Ibn Idris and the sultan of Egypt in 1321 was brought about by the necessity to wedge jihad against the neighboring unbelievers. That of Bornu and Ahir was forged by the common desire to defeat Kebbi threats. Similarly the alliance between Borno and Kanem against the Sokoto caliphate forged through this method. (Fage 1996)
Fage further quotes explores writing that, After the fall Ngazargamo to the Fulani Jihadis 1n 1808, Mai Ahmed appeal to El-kanem, a kanembo scholar who mobilize his Shuwa arab and and Kanembu followers to successfully stop the east ward advancement of the Fulani Jihad, this Action in turn lead Sokoto to enter, Egypt to further isolate Burno and deny it any chance of getting new allies and also isolate her from the then international environment and economically (Fage 1996) And shows a good example of the present sanctions imposed by the super powers like America and United Nations.
The Diplomatic ties during this era of pre-colonial African states, was an important part that had all the features, which the modern diplomacy borrowed from. For example, Fage 1996 Quoted Arabian Historians stating that a large part of the pre colonial diplomatic activities concern trade, academic studies, tradition and Polity. For the accounts, the diplomatic activities between Bornu, kanem, Wadai, Bagirmi, Bulala, and Dafur, was to insure the protection of the trans-Saharans trade roads.
References
Cell, John W. (2009) Colonialism, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
Fage, K.S, 1996 Pre-Colonial international Relations in western Sudan,and Appraisal, Danmasani, Vol. J, No 1 1996
Kenneth Minogue Politics, Avery short introduction. Oxford
University press, New York, 2000
Michalak. Tanly J (2009) Diplomacy, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
Smith, R. (1973) Peace and Palver, International relations in Precolonial West Africa. Journal of African history, great Britain (1973)
Stock, Robert (2009) Kanem-Bornu Empire Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
‘DIPLOMACY’
OUTLINE A SHORT HISTORY OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS AMONG ANY PRE-COLONIAL AFRICAN STATES OF CHOICE. BY BRINGING OUT TREATIES, PROCEDURES OF PEACE, POLITICAL AND CULTURAL PRACTICES IN THE RELATIONSHIPS
Diplomacy being a name given to official canals of communications and negotiation between two sovereign nations, involve all aspects of interest representations. It is a practices and institutions by which nations conduct their relations with one another. Originally, the English term diplomatic referred to the care and evaluation of official papers or archives, many of which were treaties. In the 18th century diplomatic documents increasingly meant those pertaining to international relations, and the term diplomatic corps was used to signify the body of ambassadors, envoys, and officials attached to foreign missions. In 1796 the British philosopher Edmund Burke castigated the French for their “double diplomacy” during the Napoleonic Wars; since then the term diplomacy has been associated with international politics and foreign policy. (Michalak 2009)
Even though the name “Diplomacy” has its roots in the 18th century, the act of diplomacy predates the 18th century; evidence is the pre-colonial diplomacy. The pre-colonial diplomacy is the relations in the pre-colonial Africa. Evidence has shown that, there has never being time when any of the African civilizations remains in isolation from each other and, or the world at large (Smith 1973). The letters interchanged between the Mai of Bornu and the Ottoma pasha of Tripoli in 1555, the treaty of truce between Kebbi and the Sokoto caliphate, which led to peace for eight years, are few among the examples. This paper will critically discuss diplomatic relationships between pre-colonial African states. The Kenem Bornu empires and its relations to other African states will be our focal point.
Pre-colonial Africa generally refers to the period before African domination by the European powers. That is before colonialism. Colonialism simply seen as one country’s domination of another country or people—usually achieved through aggressive, often military, actions—and the territory acquired in this
manner. (Cell 2009) This paper will center on the international relationships and diplomacy between the African states that took place before the European intervention into the polity of African states.
Prior to colonialism, heterogeneous Africa was organized into states, nations and localities. Each state has its sets of rules, leadership procedures and culture. Due to its large region and population, there is a struggle for control of power, resources and land. These natural struggles for nature therefore led to means of inter states relationships. Most of the relations either took the form of alliance, subservient or truce; for economic benefit, political alliance or protection. The Alliance of Hausa states in the Sudan and Bornu empires may be sited as good examples. Most of the relations in Sudan are military related, but it will be wrong to generalize, because trade and as well as high governmental relationships between the states were also obvious (Fage 1996).
The Kingdom of Kanem, emerged east of Lake Chad in what is now southwestern Chad by the 9th century AD. Kanem profited from trade ties with North Africa and the Nile Valley, from which it also received Islam. The Saifawas, Kanem’s ruling dynasty, periodically enlarged their holdings by conquest and marriage into the ruling families of vassal states. Because of the conflicts of the region, around 12th and 14th centuries, the Saifawas were forced to move across Lake Chad into Bornu, in what is now far northeastern Nigeria. There, the Kanem intermarried with the native peoples, and the new group became known as the Kanuri. The Kanuri state, centered first in Kanem and then in Bornu, is known as the Kanem-Bornu Empire, hereafter referred to as Bornu. (Robert 2009)
The Bornu empire’ practice of using diplomats to negotiate war and peace as well as practical matters such as the development and protection of trade, the conclusion of treaties and the establishment of frontiers indicates the existence of an international system of diplomacy in western Sudan (Fage 1996) for example as early as 11th century, there was exchange of diplomats between bornu and many state in the Sudan.
Around the 11th century, There was exchange of representatives between Bornu and Kanema and between Bornu and Bagirmi. Bornu also exchanges Ambassadors with the Tunis and Egypt in the 13th century. These Ambassadors like modern term has multiplicity of purpose quite apart from serving as the medium of communication and governmental contacts between those empires. They were also used for negotiation intelligence ceremonial functions etc. (Fage 1996)
As in the present times, Diplomacy in the 11th to 13th century Precolonial Africa had accorded different status, to Ambassadors of different states, but they all enjoy a certain diplomatic immunity. There are different accounts that show that Bornu emperor, Mai Idris sends an Ambassodor on a peace Mission to the sultan of Bulala. And most Established hausa lands of these areas. This is evident in the existence of Bornu embassies in Abuja, Sokoto, Zazzau and Katsina. The embassies names are known as Bakon Bornu in Abuja and Sokoto. The Magajin mallam in Zazzau and the office of Mansa in Katsina
Truce and peace treaties where also written within the Sudan in anticipation for protection or trade alliance. Some of these states occasionally ware augmented by the dispatch of visiting embassies. There was also the use of ad hoc diplomacy, usually in response to heart threatening circumstances. The alliance between Mai Usman Ibn Idris and the sultan of Egypt in 1321 was brought about by the necessity to wedge jihad against the neighboring unbelievers. That of Bornu and Ahir was forged by the common desire to defeat Kebbi threats. Similarly the alliance between Borno and Kanem against the Sokoto caliphate forged through this method. (Fage 1996)
Fage further quotes explores writing that, After the fall Ngazargamo to the Fulani Jihadis 1n 1808, Mai Ahmed appeal to El-kanem, a kanembo scholar who mobilize his Shuwa arab and and Kanembu followers to successfully stop the east ward advancement of the Fulani Jihad, this Action in turn lead Sokoto to enter, Egypt to further isolate Burno and deny it any chance of getting new allies and also isolate her from the then international environment and economically (Fage 1996) And shows a good example of the present sanctions imposed by the super powers like America and United Nations.
The Diplomatic ties during this era of pre-colonial African states, was an important part that had all the features, which the modern diplomacy borrowed from. For example, Fage 1996 Quoted Arabian Historians stating that a large part of the pre colonial diplomatic activities concern trade, academic studies, tradition and Polity. For the accounts, the diplomatic activities between Bornu, kanem, Wadai, Bagirmi, Bulala, and Dafur, was to insure the protection of the trans-Saharans trade roads.
References
Cell, John W. (2009) Colonialism, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
Fage, K.S, 1996 Pre-Colonial international Relations in western Sudan,and Appraisal, Danmasani, Vol. J, No 1 1996
Kenneth Minogue Politics, Avery short introduction. Oxford
University press, New York, 2000
Michalak. Tanly J (2009) Diplomacy, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
Smith, R. (1973) Peace and Palver, International relations in Precolonial West Africa. Journal of African history, great Britain (1973)
Stock, Robert (2009) Kanem-Bornu Empire Microsoft Encarta 2009. Microsoft Corporation. 1993-2008
INTERNATIONAL INTEGRATION
Name: SAIED TAFIDA SULAIMAN
Examining the success and challenges of ECOWAS as a Nigeria body.
Introduction
In the world where we live today, isolation and alienation is almost impossible, countries every day grow in the need to integrate for different reasons: economy and trade stand out as the focal points. The world is slowly revolving and where uses to be boarders are slowly fading away. The world is slowly becoming a global village. However, despite the integrations, these states can be self absorbed and jealously guard their territory. That is, their claim to fame, which for states is there independence and sovereignty. (Rourke 2005). Therefore to harmonize between these jealous independent states, grew the needs for international institutions and integration.
Basically there existed the independent state, with sovereignty and autonomy; this state has a certain degree of contact between them; they all recognize the need for establishment to a certain institutional structure to mediate and enhance their integration for their benefits; and there is usually a method for regulating actions between these political units. (Rourke 2005). These conditions gave birth to many international institutions, few among them are the United Nations, Common wealth, African Union (AU), European Union (EU) Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) to mention but few.
The international institutions are formed at different levels with different goals and targets, some of them are political, Military and most of them are for trade and economy. Some of institutions and firmly established and are strong in executing the reasons of their creations, e.g. EU, while others are mere names of existence with serious challenges. For example Ekenoma Imohe ones wrote that the “Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) mainly act as a state that glorify in name rather than execution and implementation of the proper state policy to aid development” (Imohe 2007:3).This paper will focus on one of the international institutions as a means of integration and it will center on ECOWAS and its challenges as a Nigerian body.
Definition of concepts
Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS was formed in 1975. It has 15 countries. The 15 comprises of 5 Anglophone countries and 10 francophone countries. ECOWAS Treaty was signed in Lagos on May 28, 1975 to harmonize relationship within member states which was gradually design for the establishment of customs union, harmonization of economic and financial policies. Monetary policies were used to streamline industrial policy and master plan, in addition to provide funds for the poor countries of the region.
ECOWAS was restructured in 1993 to produce a reversionary approach to reflect, a common market integration to optimum, dynamic and common monetary policy, a single currency to be used in the sub-region, West Africa parliament to serve as the legislative, trade liberalization with deregulation (participation of all sector of the economy), development of infrastructure such as road; electricity; dam and telephone to mention but a few and the free movement of goods with persons in the community ( this lead to enforcement of the elimination of visa restriction of member state and the issuance of a single passport to enhance the movement of persons of member state.
Nigeria
Nigeria is one of the republics in western Africa; it is a member of ECOWAS. It has a coast along the Atlantic Ocean on the Gulf of Guinea. Most of Nigeria consists of a low plateau cut by rivers, especially the Niger and its largest tributary, the Benue. The country takes its name from its chief river (Robert 2009). Until 1991, the capital was the largest city, Lagos, on the southwestern coast; at that time, the city of Abuja, in the country’s interior, became capital. Nigeria is by far the most populated of Africa’s countries, with more than one-seventh of the continent’s people. The people belong to many different ethnic groups. These groups give the country a rich culture, but they also pose major challenges to nation building. Ethnic strife has plagued Nigeria since it gained independence in 1960. (Robert 2009)
The country has had its shear of crisis since the first civil war in sixties. The United Nation human development says more than 70 percent of the country’s population live in poverty and the World Health Organization (WHO) has it that currently the country has the highest rate of infant mortality in the world. And when it comes to corruption, the country leads: recently Amnesty International, rates Nigeria among the most corrupt nations in the world. Not also neglecting the inter ethnic and religious conflicts that ravage the nation. Many writers and observers have faulted the leadership of the country. A famous Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe wrote that “the Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or in ability of leaders to rise to the responsibility and challenge of personal example which has the hall mark of true leadership” (Achebe 1983:1). Unfortunately, this was written about 30 years ago, but till date things continue to fall apart.
Despite these short comings, that threatens the existence of Nigeria as a nation, Nigeria is the major country in the running, hosting and financing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
Discuss
The emergence of independent African States brought along the issue of economic viability within national borders, like trade continuity or economic policies. Moreover, there are small African countries for which it is much more difficult to enter independently in economic structures. Therefore regional integration seems to be, as is proven in many cases, the solution for rapid economic development in developing countries. The idea of an economic grouping embracing all the states in West Africa emanated from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The ECA divided Africa into four sub-regions – North, West, Central, and East – regarded as being large enough to be economically viable and were meant to form units of integrated economic development.(Ichim 2006)
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created with the purpose to become the most important international economic instrument for economic co-operation and development in West Africa. Over the years, there have been continues attempt to advance the agenda of ECOWAS, however, political problems and other economic priorities have slowed down the process. The initiative was nevertheless continued after the election in 1999 of a democratic government and a leader committed to regional integration in Nigeria, the largest economy of the region (Ichim 2006).
As every regional organization, ECOWAS had to deal from the beginning with the inherent problems in these cases, like for instance the effective coordination of policies throughout the region, the need to help some countries that may suffer losses in the early stages or the need to surrender some sovereign powers in the decision-making process and as well the struggle for single currency. Since coordination of economic planning and economic policies demand somehow surrender of part of sovereignty, integration problems could arise because states in the sub-region seem to jealously guard their sovereignty.
More so, in the states that make the ECOWAS, Nigeria for example, not until recently, political stability has been a major issue. Anti-government demonstration, assassination, constitutional changes, coups, government crisis, purges and riots, election rigging and political thuggery are the order of the day. (Maier 2000)
Secondly, the difference in the language will continue to pose a limitation to growth, as in Nigeria with more than 250 ethnic languages. Due to Ethno linguistic fraction, there has been civil war in some Africa nations, the Ghana Civil war in 1957 caused by the ethnic problem and closely followed by the Nigeria civil war in 1966
Thirdly, is the threat pose by the economic factors. It is worst hit and most serious, that needs attention of all stake holders. Mass looting of the state funds is very common in West Africa by political office holders and bureaucrats, who see this as an avenue to make a fortune for the future. Those who steal state money are not punish, either of this now or in the future are catastrophe that can slow development in the community. In addition, economic saboteurs do make things worse, smuggling within the region without the proper custom inspection. There are avenue not to pay tax or underpay (Imohe 2007).
Another militating challenge in most of the international organizations is the inability to enforce agreement or fulfillment of financial obligations. ECOWAS for example in 2009 the Niger President Tandja Muhammad wanted to run for the third term in office, as a result he decided to do a constitutional referendum that will give him ticket to contest again. Attempt by all the West African countries especially Nigeria to deter him failed. Until a coup-d’état in the country took him out of office in November 2009.
The challenges are numerous, but not all hope is lost. West Africa Countries continue to show a slight increase in the performance of export revenues usually from a few primary commodities or from a single product mineral commodity. Import of intermediate and capital goods to aid production of goods and services as well as to provide services all times. This sign is shown in most developing nation of the world. (Imohe 2007) ECOWAS has today successfully evolve a single international passports for its members to enhance free movement. However the date for the commencement on the use of single currency is not yet known. Recently the Nigeria central bank governor said, ECOWAS is not ready for a single currency yet.
Conclusion
Nevertheless, despite the challenges facing the Regional body, the body may not be seen as a total failure because there is still room for corrections and hope that it will get better. Analysis proves that slow economic development has been mainly political. The government policies are not only misinterpreted, but misappropriation of state funds has been very rampant with those in the political class. Attempt by some past government to address the issue were rather unsuccessful due to changes in the government and government policy. The Nigeria government in 1984 lunches the program war against indiscipline, with the aim to combat corruption and economic saboteur, was later obstructed with the regime change. The community has good economic growth model, the issue is implementation at all level and hence it is necessary to give recommendation not as a lasting solution but be a part to effect a solution to the problems.
Borrowing from the words of Chinua Achebe, there is nothing wrong with the West Africans, we can coordinate and perform even better than the European Union.
References
Achebe, Chinua (1983) The trouble with Nigeria, Oxford Publishers, Oxford 1983
Ichim, Octavian (2006) ECOWAS, Cédric Dupont, 2006
Imohe, ekenoma e. (2007) Economic development crises in Economic Community of
West Africa States (ECOWAS): challenges and controversy. New York 200
Maier Karl (2000) This House has fallen: Nigeria in Crisis Penguin group, London 2000
Stock, Robert (2009). Nigeria. Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Rourke, John T. (2005) International Politics on the world stage Mc Graw Hill, New York, 2005
Name: SAIED TAFIDA SULAIMAN
Examining the success and challenges of ECOWAS as a Nigeria body.
Introduction
In the world where we live today, isolation and alienation is almost impossible, countries every day grow in the need to integrate for different reasons: economy and trade stand out as the focal points. The world is slowly revolving and where uses to be boarders are slowly fading away. The world is slowly becoming a global village. However, despite the integrations, these states can be self absorbed and jealously guard their territory. That is, their claim to fame, which for states is there independence and sovereignty. (Rourke 2005). Therefore to harmonize between these jealous independent states, grew the needs for international institutions and integration.
Basically there existed the independent state, with sovereignty and autonomy; this state has a certain degree of contact between them; they all recognize the need for establishment to a certain institutional structure to mediate and enhance their integration for their benefits; and there is usually a method for regulating actions between these political units. (Rourke 2005). These conditions gave birth to many international institutions, few among them are the United Nations, Common wealth, African Union (AU), European Union (EU) Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) to mention but few.
The international institutions are formed at different levels with different goals and targets, some of them are political, Military and most of them are for trade and economy. Some of institutions and firmly established and are strong in executing the reasons of their creations, e.g. EU, while others are mere names of existence with serious challenges. For example Ekenoma Imohe ones wrote that the “Economic Community of West Africa States (ECOWAS) mainly act as a state that glorify in name rather than execution and implementation of the proper state policy to aid development” (Imohe 2007:3).This paper will focus on one of the international institutions as a means of integration and it will center on ECOWAS and its challenges as a Nigerian body.
Definition of concepts
Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS)
ECOWAS was formed in 1975. It has 15 countries. The 15 comprises of 5 Anglophone countries and 10 francophone countries. ECOWAS Treaty was signed in Lagos on May 28, 1975 to harmonize relationship within member states which was gradually design for the establishment of customs union, harmonization of economic and financial policies. Monetary policies were used to streamline industrial policy and master plan, in addition to provide funds for the poor countries of the region.
ECOWAS was restructured in 1993 to produce a reversionary approach to reflect, a common market integration to optimum, dynamic and common monetary policy, a single currency to be used in the sub-region, West Africa parliament to serve as the legislative, trade liberalization with deregulation (participation of all sector of the economy), development of infrastructure such as road; electricity; dam and telephone to mention but a few and the free movement of goods with persons in the community ( this lead to enforcement of the elimination of visa restriction of member state and the issuance of a single passport to enhance the movement of persons of member state.
Nigeria
Nigeria is one of the republics in western Africa; it is a member of ECOWAS. It has a coast along the Atlantic Ocean on the Gulf of Guinea. Most of Nigeria consists of a low plateau cut by rivers, especially the Niger and its largest tributary, the Benue. The country takes its name from its chief river (Robert 2009). Until 1991, the capital was the largest city, Lagos, on the southwestern coast; at that time, the city of Abuja, in the country’s interior, became capital. Nigeria is by far the most populated of Africa’s countries, with more than one-seventh of the continent’s people. The people belong to many different ethnic groups. These groups give the country a rich culture, but they also pose major challenges to nation building. Ethnic strife has plagued Nigeria since it gained independence in 1960. (Robert 2009)
The country has had its shear of crisis since the first civil war in sixties. The United Nation human development says more than 70 percent of the country’s population live in poverty and the World Health Organization (WHO) has it that currently the country has the highest rate of infant mortality in the world. And when it comes to corruption, the country leads: recently Amnesty International, rates Nigeria among the most corrupt nations in the world. Not also neglecting the inter ethnic and religious conflicts that ravage the nation. Many writers and observers have faulted the leadership of the country. A famous Nigerian writer Chinua Achebe wrote that “the Nigerian problem is the unwillingness or in ability of leaders to rise to the responsibility and challenge of personal example which has the hall mark of true leadership” (Achebe 1983:1). Unfortunately, this was written about 30 years ago, but till date things continue to fall apart.
Despite these short comings, that threatens the existence of Nigeria as a nation, Nigeria is the major country in the running, hosting and financing the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).
Discuss
The emergence of independent African States brought along the issue of economic viability within national borders, like trade continuity or economic policies. Moreover, there are small African countries for which it is much more difficult to enter independently in economic structures. Therefore regional integration seems to be, as is proven in many cases, the solution for rapid economic development in developing countries. The idea of an economic grouping embracing all the states in West Africa emanated from the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA). The ECA divided Africa into four sub-regions – North, West, Central, and East – regarded as being large enough to be economically viable and were meant to form units of integrated economic development.(Ichim 2006)
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created with the purpose to become the most important international economic instrument for economic co-operation and development in West Africa. Over the years, there have been continues attempt to advance the agenda of ECOWAS, however, political problems and other economic priorities have slowed down the process. The initiative was nevertheless continued after the election in 1999 of a democratic government and a leader committed to regional integration in Nigeria, the largest economy of the region (Ichim 2006).
As every regional organization, ECOWAS had to deal from the beginning with the inherent problems in these cases, like for instance the effective coordination of policies throughout the region, the need to help some countries that may suffer losses in the early stages or the need to surrender some sovereign powers in the decision-making process and as well the struggle for single currency. Since coordination of economic planning and economic policies demand somehow surrender of part of sovereignty, integration problems could arise because states in the sub-region seem to jealously guard their sovereignty.
More so, in the states that make the ECOWAS, Nigeria for example, not until recently, political stability has been a major issue. Anti-government demonstration, assassination, constitutional changes, coups, government crisis, purges and riots, election rigging and political thuggery are the order of the day. (Maier 2000)
Secondly, the difference in the language will continue to pose a limitation to growth, as in Nigeria with more than 250 ethnic languages. Due to Ethno linguistic fraction, there has been civil war in some Africa nations, the Ghana Civil war in 1957 caused by the ethnic problem and closely followed by the Nigeria civil war in 1966
Thirdly, is the threat pose by the economic factors. It is worst hit and most serious, that needs attention of all stake holders. Mass looting of the state funds is very common in West Africa by political office holders and bureaucrats, who see this as an avenue to make a fortune for the future. Those who steal state money are not punish, either of this now or in the future are catastrophe that can slow development in the community. In addition, economic saboteurs do make things worse, smuggling within the region without the proper custom inspection. There are avenue not to pay tax or underpay (Imohe 2007).
Another militating challenge in most of the international organizations is the inability to enforce agreement or fulfillment of financial obligations. ECOWAS for example in 2009 the Niger President Tandja Muhammad wanted to run for the third term in office, as a result he decided to do a constitutional referendum that will give him ticket to contest again. Attempt by all the West African countries especially Nigeria to deter him failed. Until a coup-d’état in the country took him out of office in November 2009.
The challenges are numerous, but not all hope is lost. West Africa Countries continue to show a slight increase in the performance of export revenues usually from a few primary commodities or from a single product mineral commodity. Import of intermediate and capital goods to aid production of goods and services as well as to provide services all times. This sign is shown in most developing nation of the world. (Imohe 2007) ECOWAS has today successfully evolve a single international passports for its members to enhance free movement. However the date for the commencement on the use of single currency is not yet known. Recently the Nigeria central bank governor said, ECOWAS is not ready for a single currency yet.
Conclusion
Nevertheless, despite the challenges facing the Regional body, the body may not be seen as a total failure because there is still room for corrections and hope that it will get better. Analysis proves that slow economic development has been mainly political. The government policies are not only misinterpreted, but misappropriation of state funds has been very rampant with those in the political class. Attempt by some past government to address the issue were rather unsuccessful due to changes in the government and government policy. The Nigeria government in 1984 lunches the program war against indiscipline, with the aim to combat corruption and economic saboteur, was later obstructed with the regime change. The community has good economic growth model, the issue is implementation at all level and hence it is necessary to give recommendation not as a lasting solution but be a part to effect a solution to the problems.
Borrowing from the words of Chinua Achebe, there is nothing wrong with the West Africans, we can coordinate and perform even better than the European Union.
References
Achebe, Chinua (1983) The trouble with Nigeria, Oxford Publishers, Oxford 1983
Ichim, Octavian (2006) ECOWAS, Cédric Dupont, 2006
Imohe, ekenoma e. (2007) Economic development crises in Economic Community of
West Africa States (ECOWAS): challenges and controversy. New York 200
Maier Karl (2000) This House has fallen: Nigeria in Crisis Penguin group, London 2000
Stock, Robert (2009). Nigeria. Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Rourke, John T. (2005) International Politics on the world stage Mc Graw Hill, New York, 2005
POSITIVISM, POSTMODERNISM, OR CRITICAL THEORY?
A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF CRITICISM
By: Christian Fuchs and Marisol Sandoval of University Of Salzburg, Austria
A REVIEW BY
SAIED SULAIMAN TAFIDA
INTRODUCTION
The paper was published in the Journal for Critical Education Policy studies, 6 (2). The paper tries to provide the result of case study that analyze how students understand the importance of critical thinking.1 the distinctions between the major theories of positivism, postmodernism and Marxian critique. The research is based on the analysis of 52 students writing about a notion of critique.2
The writers grouped the paper into 5 main Sections of: Introduction; The notion of critiques, Research method; Presentation of results; and interpretation of the results and conclusion. This review will attempt to summaries the chapters and assess the write up.
REVIEW
The writers opened their first chapter with an introduction of the study and what they hope to achieve after the paper. They questioned the emergence of different protest of students in 1960 against wars, the overwhelming rise of capitalism and economization of societies. The movement according to them looks like a leftist movement but with less revolutionary tendencies. However according to them, 40 years has passed now and what the students protest against, still stand. Hence they seek to bring out “how important is critical political thinking for students today? Do they consider Marxian critique of society rather important and topical or rather unimportant and outmoded?”3
The second section of the paper focused on different notions of criticisms. First is the notion of critique in Marxist critical theory. The section sees and defines Marxist theory as the notion of critic they wished to advance in explaining the role of economic interest play in capitalism. The writers based the critic notion on “introduction to the critique of Hegel’s philosophy of rights”, written in one of Carl Marx’s write ups in 1844. They went further to group the important elements of the notion of critique into three: epistemology, ontology and axiology.
Epistemology or what they refer as dialectical materialism is grasped as the human use of knowledge to define or assess a certain social phenomena. The use of dialectical materialism was to advance the human pessimism or optimism as the history has it, in the defining of knowledge. Ontology or materialism is the distribution materials in the society. Since critical theory is materialistic in nature. It looks at private ownership and distribution of resources. And finally axiology focuses on negating the negative. Critical theories usually stand on the position of the exploited, the masses, and assess the bourgeois. The axiological dimension of critique is the interface between theory and political praxis. 4
Secondly, the writers brought positivistic notion of critic to table. They brought the argument of Karl R. Popper (1962) which says “the method of social sciences is gaining and differentiating knowledge by testing solutions to problems5. They brought the importance of positivism and given the opportunity for others to simply observe the analyses and criticize or adopt for the improvement of knowledge.
Thirdly is the postmodern notion of critique. They portray this notion to argue that, there are no universal communalities of human societies as shown by dialectical materialism. Social structures are pure social constructions. For them the yard stick of measurement is also constructed. Such constructions are not to be considered with reference to the ground or foundation of things but by relating them to the body of rules that enable them to form.
The authors brought out the shortcoming of all the theories. They brought out that Marxist theory is utopia, and that positivist thinking is not easly reliable because man cannot be subjected to numbers due to his dynamic nature. For the postmodernist, the enmity towards universalism and essence makes it impossible to envision a state of society, in which there is universal wealth and well-being for all.
The second section rounded up with a typology of defining critique. For the writers, they don’t need a typology of what a critique can be but how he can be potentially defined. That the task of the case study they undertook is to investigate which among Marxist critique, positivistic and postmodern understandings is predominant in 52 students write ups they are analyzing.
Research method makes the 3rd section. In this section the researchers explaining their method of analysis. According to them, they adopted a quantifying qualitative content analysis as research method. The sample is restricted to the 52 undergraduates write ups on the notion of critical analysis. After studying the write ups, the writers tested four hypotheses.
The results of the hypothesis were presented in the forth section of the paper. The analysis portrays the involvement of opinions in the write ups and they found that positivist arguments were predominant (more than 70%). On the contrary those “student who employ Marxist understanding of critique, took a normative standpoint”6 . The writers went further to interpret the results in the fifth section.
Section 5, interpreted the general findings. The writers started by laying foundations of the contextual are were the research was conducted. They found that the students focus more on education and unemployment, than student radicalism in the campuses. This according to them may be because in 2008 radicalism in universities is not a norm. Unemployment is seen as a factor against student performance.
However in the research under scrutiny, positivistic thinking was wide spread to about 75 percent. Critical/Anti capitalism though is present but to a lesser degree (17.3%). According to them, “the increase penetration of the academic system with economic reasons that is brought about by neoliberal policies and that could be strongly observed in Austria during the past decade, has contributed to the strong dominance of positivistic thought among students.7
According to the researchers, one dimensional thought seems to be overwhelming other thoughts. For them critical views has moved to the corridors of schools and are thought just in books, because even the bigots are seen as aliens in the schools. “the commodification of education not only takes on the form that students have to pay school fees…they have to take up paid employment…universities becoming more directly related to industry”8 for them disciplines that cannot be related to capitalist economy are gradually vanishing into the thin air. The implication of such according to the writers is the lost in student interest in socio-political issues. And such students will only nurture a totalitarian and undemocratic society,
The writers concluded by suggesting some ways to arrest the one dimension thought in the society. They suggested that Marxian theory should be connected to student’s actual experience. And particular emphasis should be given to social problems in social science courses. They linked the necessity of such steps to avoid the reoccurrence of global economic meltdown witnessed in 2008 to 2009.
CONCLUSION
The writers aim at conveying out how social science can be used in bringing out knowledge and betterment of our societies. It is obvious; the aim of the paper is achieved. However, the writer’s analysis of data is too small for over generalization. The writers sampled 52 write-ups from a certain socio-political background as a basses of analysis. The theoretical outcome may be different if the students where from Moscow or Nigeria, Austria is more dominant a capitalist state than Russia or undeveloped Nigeria. It will be recommendable if a greater sample that cut across cultures, classes and regions will be used, before conclusions are deduced.
End Notes
1 Fuchs, Christian et al. Positivism, postmodernism, or critical theory?
A case study of communication students’ understanding of criticism Journal for critical education policy studies 6, (2): 113
2 Ibid: 113
3 Ibid: 113
4 Ibid: 114
5 Ibid: 116
6 Ibid: 125
7 Ibid: 135
8 Ibid: 135
Bibliography:
Barbie, Earl (2001) The practice of social research: 9th edition, Wads worth/ learning, Belmont, USA 2001
A CASE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION STUDENTS’ UNDERSTANDING OF CRITICISM
By: Christian Fuchs and Marisol Sandoval of University Of Salzburg, Austria
A REVIEW BY
SAIED SULAIMAN TAFIDA
INTRODUCTION
The paper was published in the Journal for Critical Education Policy studies, 6 (2). The paper tries to provide the result of case study that analyze how students understand the importance of critical thinking.1 the distinctions between the major theories of positivism, postmodernism and Marxian critique. The research is based on the analysis of 52 students writing about a notion of critique.2
The writers grouped the paper into 5 main Sections of: Introduction; The notion of critiques, Research method; Presentation of results; and interpretation of the results and conclusion. This review will attempt to summaries the chapters and assess the write up.
REVIEW
The writers opened their first chapter with an introduction of the study and what they hope to achieve after the paper. They questioned the emergence of different protest of students in 1960 against wars, the overwhelming rise of capitalism and economization of societies. The movement according to them looks like a leftist movement but with less revolutionary tendencies. However according to them, 40 years has passed now and what the students protest against, still stand. Hence they seek to bring out “how important is critical political thinking for students today? Do they consider Marxian critique of society rather important and topical or rather unimportant and outmoded?”3
The second section of the paper focused on different notions of criticisms. First is the notion of critique in Marxist critical theory. The section sees and defines Marxist theory as the notion of critic they wished to advance in explaining the role of economic interest play in capitalism. The writers based the critic notion on “introduction to the critique of Hegel’s philosophy of rights”, written in one of Carl Marx’s write ups in 1844. They went further to group the important elements of the notion of critique into three: epistemology, ontology and axiology.
Epistemology or what they refer as dialectical materialism is grasped as the human use of knowledge to define or assess a certain social phenomena. The use of dialectical materialism was to advance the human pessimism or optimism as the history has it, in the defining of knowledge. Ontology or materialism is the distribution materials in the society. Since critical theory is materialistic in nature. It looks at private ownership and distribution of resources. And finally axiology focuses on negating the negative. Critical theories usually stand on the position of the exploited, the masses, and assess the bourgeois. The axiological dimension of critique is the interface between theory and political praxis. 4
Secondly, the writers brought positivistic notion of critic to table. They brought the argument of Karl R. Popper (1962) which says “the method of social sciences is gaining and differentiating knowledge by testing solutions to problems5. They brought the importance of positivism and given the opportunity for others to simply observe the analyses and criticize or adopt for the improvement of knowledge.
Thirdly is the postmodern notion of critique. They portray this notion to argue that, there are no universal communalities of human societies as shown by dialectical materialism. Social structures are pure social constructions. For them the yard stick of measurement is also constructed. Such constructions are not to be considered with reference to the ground or foundation of things but by relating them to the body of rules that enable them to form.
The authors brought out the shortcoming of all the theories. They brought out that Marxist theory is utopia, and that positivist thinking is not easly reliable because man cannot be subjected to numbers due to his dynamic nature. For the postmodernist, the enmity towards universalism and essence makes it impossible to envision a state of society, in which there is universal wealth and well-being for all.
The second section rounded up with a typology of defining critique. For the writers, they don’t need a typology of what a critique can be but how he can be potentially defined. That the task of the case study they undertook is to investigate which among Marxist critique, positivistic and postmodern understandings is predominant in 52 students write ups they are analyzing.
Research method makes the 3rd section. In this section the researchers explaining their method of analysis. According to them, they adopted a quantifying qualitative content analysis as research method. The sample is restricted to the 52 undergraduates write ups on the notion of critical analysis. After studying the write ups, the writers tested four hypotheses.
The results of the hypothesis were presented in the forth section of the paper. The analysis portrays the involvement of opinions in the write ups and they found that positivist arguments were predominant (more than 70%). On the contrary those “student who employ Marxist understanding of critique, took a normative standpoint”6 . The writers went further to interpret the results in the fifth section.
Section 5, interpreted the general findings. The writers started by laying foundations of the contextual are were the research was conducted. They found that the students focus more on education and unemployment, than student radicalism in the campuses. This according to them may be because in 2008 radicalism in universities is not a norm. Unemployment is seen as a factor against student performance.
However in the research under scrutiny, positivistic thinking was wide spread to about 75 percent. Critical/Anti capitalism though is present but to a lesser degree (17.3%). According to them, “the increase penetration of the academic system with economic reasons that is brought about by neoliberal policies and that could be strongly observed in Austria during the past decade, has contributed to the strong dominance of positivistic thought among students.7
According to the researchers, one dimensional thought seems to be overwhelming other thoughts. For them critical views has moved to the corridors of schools and are thought just in books, because even the bigots are seen as aliens in the schools. “the commodification of education not only takes on the form that students have to pay school fees…they have to take up paid employment…universities becoming more directly related to industry”8 for them disciplines that cannot be related to capitalist economy are gradually vanishing into the thin air. The implication of such according to the writers is the lost in student interest in socio-political issues. And such students will only nurture a totalitarian and undemocratic society,
The writers concluded by suggesting some ways to arrest the one dimension thought in the society. They suggested that Marxian theory should be connected to student’s actual experience. And particular emphasis should be given to social problems in social science courses. They linked the necessity of such steps to avoid the reoccurrence of global economic meltdown witnessed in 2008 to 2009.
CONCLUSION
The writers aim at conveying out how social science can be used in bringing out knowledge and betterment of our societies. It is obvious; the aim of the paper is achieved. However, the writer’s analysis of data is too small for over generalization. The writers sampled 52 write-ups from a certain socio-political background as a basses of analysis. The theoretical outcome may be different if the students where from Moscow or Nigeria, Austria is more dominant a capitalist state than Russia or undeveloped Nigeria. It will be recommendable if a greater sample that cut across cultures, classes and regions will be used, before conclusions are deduced.
End Notes
1 Fuchs, Christian et al. Positivism, postmodernism, or critical theory?
A case study of communication students’ understanding of criticism Journal for critical education policy studies 6, (2): 113
2 Ibid: 113
3 Ibid: 113
4 Ibid: 114
5 Ibid: 116
6 Ibid: 125
7 Ibid: 135
8 Ibid: 135
Bibliography:
Barbie, Earl (2001) The practice of social research: 9th edition, Wads worth/ learning, Belmont, USA 2001
explaining the subject matter of modern political analysis. How important it is to the student of politics.
SAIED SULAIMAN TAFIDA
Modern political analysis, as the name implies is the study of political debates and political phenomena’s. The course seeks to addresses some of the more important philosophical questions underlying theoretical and methodological choices that all political scientist must make and relate these to recent work and debates in the discipline of political science. (Stuart 2005)
Even though the course is a science, that is, it uses the scientific methods of researching, data collection and analyzing in its processes, all subject matters of social science, which is man, cannot be subjected to laboratory. Hence, the obvious question, “is it possible to have a scientific study of politics?” Social sciences, lacks a define way of oprationalizing its concepts and prepositions, therefore, the modern political analysis seek to study major political contest. It seeks to analyze and critically scrutinize the different methods and thoughts in the explanation of political processes
The general attempt by different philosophers to proffer explanations to political methodologies led to the division of the philosophers and theorists along different lines and orientation, within the discipline of political science. Some of these approaches are upheld and criticized where necessary, few among them are as follows.
Naturalist and anti naturalist; the naturalist believe that social sciences can be studied as any other natural science. For them state can be studied like water and can be subjected to certain conditioning for a certain result. While the anti naturalists argue, that politics which deal with human beings cannot be studied in the lab.
The positivist approaches, focuses on the use of empirical methods, surveys and observations to the study of human beings and politics. Close to the positivist are the individuals approaches, or known as the rational choice. The approach believes that social systems are fully reducible to individuals and their actions. These approaches counter the holistic approach which postulates that a group of individuals is more than just the sum of its parts, and so must be studies in aggregate.
The system approach tries to look at politics as a product of a whole of interdependent and interrelated parts, with each part functioning for the survival of the whole.
The communication approach looked at communication rather than power in the study of politics. And it can be best analyzed in the transmission of massages and reaction to those massages from the public.
The elitist approach opined on the alienation of labor, worker and his labor. It focuses on the existence of inequalities, distributed along wealth, power, prestige and authority in societies.
These debates try to provide and analyze political situations. However none of them is an article of faith. They are all being criticized for the short falls in one place or the other.
The Importance of political analysis to a political science student cannot be over emphasized. The contestations and the debates are the hallmarks of political science. It equipped a student with varieties of options and choices of explanations of political phenomena.
Most political propositions are metaphorical; politics is the art of navigating the ship of state. (Kenneth 2000). The different debates and approaches to the study of politics in modern political analysis serve as signs and navigational compass for the steersman of the ship of state.
One of the important conjunctions in politics is between the present and the future, between the differences in the cultures and interpretations. Modern political analysis provides varieties of thoughts and methodologies for a student politics to understand a certain political concept at a certain time based on a certain orientation for a better ruling and judgment. It is safe to say Modern political analysis is the back born of political science.
Refrences
1 Kenneth Minogue Politics, Avery short introduction. Oxford
University press, New York, 2000
2 Stuat, Soroka Modern political analysis notes, Leacock
University 2005.
SAIED SULAIMAN TAFIDA
Modern political analysis, as the name implies is the study of political debates and political phenomena’s. The course seeks to addresses some of the more important philosophical questions underlying theoretical and methodological choices that all political scientist must make and relate these to recent work and debates in the discipline of political science. (Stuart 2005)
Even though the course is a science, that is, it uses the scientific methods of researching, data collection and analyzing in its processes, all subject matters of social science, which is man, cannot be subjected to laboratory. Hence, the obvious question, “is it possible to have a scientific study of politics?” Social sciences, lacks a define way of oprationalizing its concepts and prepositions, therefore, the modern political analysis seek to study major political contest. It seeks to analyze and critically scrutinize the different methods and thoughts in the explanation of political processes
The general attempt by different philosophers to proffer explanations to political methodologies led to the division of the philosophers and theorists along different lines and orientation, within the discipline of political science. Some of these approaches are upheld and criticized where necessary, few among them are as follows.
Naturalist and anti naturalist; the naturalist believe that social sciences can be studied as any other natural science. For them state can be studied like water and can be subjected to certain conditioning for a certain result. While the anti naturalists argue, that politics which deal with human beings cannot be studied in the lab.
The positivist approaches, focuses on the use of empirical methods, surveys and observations to the study of human beings and politics. Close to the positivist are the individuals approaches, or known as the rational choice. The approach believes that social systems are fully reducible to individuals and their actions. These approaches counter the holistic approach which postulates that a group of individuals is more than just the sum of its parts, and so must be studies in aggregate.
The system approach tries to look at politics as a product of a whole of interdependent and interrelated parts, with each part functioning for the survival of the whole.
The communication approach looked at communication rather than power in the study of politics. And it can be best analyzed in the transmission of massages and reaction to those massages from the public.
The elitist approach opined on the alienation of labor, worker and his labor. It focuses on the existence of inequalities, distributed along wealth, power, prestige and authority in societies.
These debates try to provide and analyze political situations. However none of them is an article of faith. They are all being criticized for the short falls in one place or the other.
The Importance of political analysis to a political science student cannot be over emphasized. The contestations and the debates are the hallmarks of political science. It equipped a student with varieties of options and choices of explanations of political phenomena.
Most political propositions are metaphorical; politics is the art of navigating the ship of state. (Kenneth 2000). The different debates and approaches to the study of politics in modern political analysis serve as signs and navigational compass for the steersman of the ship of state.
One of the important conjunctions in politics is between the present and the future, between the differences in the cultures and interpretations. Modern political analysis provides varieties of thoughts and methodologies for a student politics to understand a certain political concept at a certain time based on a certain orientation for a better ruling and judgment. It is safe to say Modern political analysis is the back born of political science.
Refrences
1 Kenneth Minogue Politics, Avery short introduction. Oxford
University press, New York, 2000
2 Stuat, Soroka Modern political analysis notes, Leacock
University 2005.
THE ROLES AND CHALLENGES OF USING EMAIL, VIDEO CONFERENCING AND VOICE OVER IP IN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.
SULAIMAN SAIED TAFIDA
INTRODUCTION
The massive inflow of communications in this dispensation is beyond calculations. Thanks to the ICT, The computer I am typing on now, the online materials I am citing from, my web camp, phones etc, all combined made my assignment writing easy. The e-mails, chart rooms, social websites and telecommunications has brought the whole world to a “global village”. With a click you can connect to the more than 6 billion people of the world. We can all buy, sell and follow the best products regardless of where they are produced.
This contrasted to the ancient form of communicating over long distances which had series challenges throughout history. In ancient times, runners were used to carry important messages between rulers or other important people. Other forms of long-distance communication included smoke signals, chains of searchlights and flags to send a message from one tower to another, carrier pigeons, and horses. (Robert 2009)
This over beneficial modern telecommunications began in the 1800s with the discovery that electricity can be used to transmit a signal. For the first time, a signal could be sent faster than any other mode of transportation. The first practical telecommunications device to make use of this discovery was the telegraph (Robert 2009). And now the discovery of fiber optic cables further changes the face of communication.
Even though, the information and communications technology (ICT) enhances human lives and economic growth. It is important to note that it is not just enjoyed, a medium for communication have to be there, ‘The computer’ a source for the internet and off course the energy to power the gadgets. In the underdeveloped countries like Nigeria this is a major issue of concern. It is necessary to consider costs, access, usage and definitions, and one might also consider the most appropriate form of provision of access: personal ownership, schools/colleges or community tele-centers (Hicks 2009). This paper will aim at looking at the challenges of using email, video conferencing and voice over IP in socio-economic development in Nigeria.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Internet:
Internet, computer-based global information system. The Internet is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information and processing power. One of the best-known resources on the Internet is the World Wide Web, which uses the Internet to display text and multimedia content on Web pages, along with interactive features. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet does not have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, post information for general consumption, retrieve information, use distant applications and services, or buy and sell products. (Comer 2009)
E-mail
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a key attraction of the Internet and a common form of computer telecommunications. E-mail is a text-based message delivery system that allows information such as typed messages and multimedia to be sent to individual computer users (Robert 2009). Tones of thousands of pages can be sent fast and cheap.
Video conferencing:
This a conferencing method known as one-way video/two-way audio that uses television pictures that are transmitted to particular sites, where people can reply to the broadcasters with a telephone call-in system. Television pictures can also be transmitted in two directions simultaneously through telephone lines, so that teachers and students in one place can see and hear teachers and students in other places. It was developed as distance education increasingly uses combinations of different communications technologies to enhance the abilities of teachers and students to communicate with each other. (Moore 2009)
Voice over IP
Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) is a method for making telephone calls over the Internet by sending voice data in separate packets, just as e-mail is sent. Each packet is assigned a code for its destination, and the packets are then reassembled in the correct order at the receiving end(Robert 2009). Recent technological improvements have made VOIP as smooth as any phone call.
DISCUSS
Many economists consider ICT a general-purpose technology due to its pervasive character; it has become an indispensible part of production of goods and services, irrespective of industry. Literatures have identified two important channels by which ICT can have real effects on real economy: the production of the ICT and the use of ICT by other industries. Given its huge impact, the ICT revolution is started to be tagged as a general-purpose technology, like steam engine and electricity, by many economists. (Erdil, et al 2009)
Emails, video conference and other internet gadgets are agents of improving productivity and reducing cost of production, hence economic growth. A company that may need a secretary to write piles of notes, a clerk to type them and messenger to deliver the minutes to the members of the board can overcome this by just organizing a video conferencing or e-mailing. Thanks to video conferencing, now students can sit in Nigeria and take notes and lectures from UK. This makes e studies easier and degrees are conferred now without the student coming in eye to eye contact with his lectures.
The yahoo chat and other social networks like skype, Has also aided, in making the world a global village, with the help of your web camp mouth piece and ear phones, we can now see each other talk to each other shear moments and pictures with our friends all around the world. Instant phone is made easy with just a connection to a broad band internet connection.
Upon this inevitable importance of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), Nigeria lacks intensive infrastructure such as landlines and fixed broadband. There are only 2% of the world landlines in Africa and Less than three percent of the world’s Internet subscribers are located in Africa. This means that taking into account the populations of Africa, only1.3 percent of the inhabitants were sub-scribers to an Internet Service Provider. (Avila 2009). Nigeria is considered the most populated nations of the African continent. With all this high need of ICT yet less laid structures to cater for it. The internet broadband in Nigeria is provided at a very high cost, with few people being able to afford.
The latest United Nations figures show that more than 70 percent of Nigerians populations live on less than one dollar a day. This figure means most of the populace had to go for other means lively hood and view gadgets like internet as an opportunity cost. That is, what can be forgone for another necessity of life like food, and school fees. Until recently computer and internet are seen as the instrument of the rich in Nigeria.
Another challenge in internet in Nigeria is the distribution of acess, Tele-density in the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa is rather low, in rural areas. Many people are living in rural areas. Estimation in 2004, shows that around two-thirds of population in the region resides in rural areas. Efforts are being carried out to include small villages to use some form of ICTs, however, there is lots to be done in this field. Furthermore, it is estimated that 55% of villages’ population are unconnected without access to fixed, mobile and/or data ser-vices (Avila 2009).
Internet connectivity and the host computer all depend on power. Nigeria’s greatest deterrence to development is power, lack of it has made every activity not feasible and where feasible very expansive. People have to buy private sources of energy to power their computers. And internet service provider will have to install two electricity generating sets as a backup source of power to be able to provide effective services. Therefore most instant massages like the voice over IP may not be easy, because if on your side you have provided the energy to power your computer and internet, the other party may be out of power.
Lack of awareness on the benefits of internet and things like emails, is also another challenge in the use of internet in Nigeria. It is not uncommon to see students and people not having the know how to operate a computer or work on the internet. Most people see it as an alien machine.
CONCLUSION
The challenges in the use of internet, e-mail, video conferencing and voice over IP in socio economic Nigeria are numerous. However it is not insurmountable. It is important for the policy makers of Nigeria to focus on the provision and expansion of the internet access. And as well make the access to internet easy. Expanding access to broadband services is a challenge and a chance for Nigeria to benefit from the Information Society. Therefore the establishment of access to the global backbones will be crucial for the development of Nigeria’s telecommunication markets as well as to other sectors.
References
AVILA, Alfonso (2009) Underdeveloped ICT areas in Sub-Saharan Africa
Informatics Economică vol. 13, no. 2/2009
ERDIL, Erkan et al (2009) Does ICT Sustain Economic Growth? The Underdeveloped and Developing Countries Case: Working papers in Economics Department of Economics Izmir University of Economics
Comer, Douglas E. Internet, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Frieden, Robert. Telecommunications, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Moore, Michael G. Distance Education, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Rourke, John T (2005) International Politics on the world stage: McGraw Hill, New York 2005
SULAIMAN SAIED TAFIDA
INTRODUCTION
The massive inflow of communications in this dispensation is beyond calculations. Thanks to the ICT, The computer I am typing on now, the online materials I am citing from, my web camp, phones etc, all combined made my assignment writing easy. The e-mails, chart rooms, social websites and telecommunications has brought the whole world to a “global village”. With a click you can connect to the more than 6 billion people of the world. We can all buy, sell and follow the best products regardless of where they are produced.
This contrasted to the ancient form of communicating over long distances which had series challenges throughout history. In ancient times, runners were used to carry important messages between rulers or other important people. Other forms of long-distance communication included smoke signals, chains of searchlights and flags to send a message from one tower to another, carrier pigeons, and horses. (Robert 2009)
This over beneficial modern telecommunications began in the 1800s with the discovery that electricity can be used to transmit a signal. For the first time, a signal could be sent faster than any other mode of transportation. The first practical telecommunications device to make use of this discovery was the telegraph (Robert 2009). And now the discovery of fiber optic cables further changes the face of communication.
Even though, the information and communications technology (ICT) enhances human lives and economic growth. It is important to note that it is not just enjoyed, a medium for communication have to be there, ‘The computer’ a source for the internet and off course the energy to power the gadgets. In the underdeveloped countries like Nigeria this is a major issue of concern. It is necessary to consider costs, access, usage and definitions, and one might also consider the most appropriate form of provision of access: personal ownership, schools/colleges or community tele-centers (Hicks 2009). This paper will aim at looking at the challenges of using email, video conferencing and voice over IP in socio-economic development in Nigeria.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Internet:
Internet, computer-based global information system. The Internet is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link tens, hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information and processing power. One of the best-known resources on the Internet is the World Wide Web, which uses the Internet to display text and multimedia content on Web pages, along with interactive features. The Internet has made it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively. Unlike traditional broadcasting media, such as radio and television, the Internet does not have a centralized distribution system. Instead, an individual who has Internet access can communicate directly with anyone else on the Internet, post information for general consumption, retrieve information, use distant applications and services, or buy and sell products. (Comer 2009)
Electronic mail, or e-mail, is a key attraction of the Internet and a common form of computer telecommunications. E-mail is a text-based message delivery system that allows information such as typed messages and multimedia to be sent to individual computer users (Robert 2009). Tones of thousands of pages can be sent fast and cheap.
Video conferencing:
This a conferencing method known as one-way video/two-way audio that uses television pictures that are transmitted to particular sites, where people can reply to the broadcasters with a telephone call-in system. Television pictures can also be transmitted in two directions simultaneously through telephone lines, so that teachers and students in one place can see and hear teachers and students in other places. It was developed as distance education increasingly uses combinations of different communications technologies to enhance the abilities of teachers and students to communicate with each other. (Moore 2009)
Voice over IP
Voice over internet protocol (VOIP) is a method for making telephone calls over the Internet by sending voice data in separate packets, just as e-mail is sent. Each packet is assigned a code for its destination, and the packets are then reassembled in the correct order at the receiving end(Robert 2009). Recent technological improvements have made VOIP as smooth as any phone call.
DISCUSS
Many economists consider ICT a general-purpose technology due to its pervasive character; it has become an indispensible part of production of goods and services, irrespective of industry. Literatures have identified two important channels by which ICT can have real effects on real economy: the production of the ICT and the use of ICT by other industries. Given its huge impact, the ICT revolution is started to be tagged as a general-purpose technology, like steam engine and electricity, by many economists. (Erdil, et al 2009)
Emails, video conference and other internet gadgets are agents of improving productivity and reducing cost of production, hence economic growth. A company that may need a secretary to write piles of notes, a clerk to type them and messenger to deliver the minutes to the members of the board can overcome this by just organizing a video conferencing or e-mailing. Thanks to video conferencing, now students can sit in Nigeria and take notes and lectures from UK. This makes e studies easier and degrees are conferred now without the student coming in eye to eye contact with his lectures.
The yahoo chat and other social networks like skype, Has also aided, in making the world a global village, with the help of your web camp mouth piece and ear phones, we can now see each other talk to each other shear moments and pictures with our friends all around the world. Instant phone is made easy with just a connection to a broad band internet connection.
Upon this inevitable importance of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), Nigeria lacks intensive infrastructure such as landlines and fixed broadband. There are only 2% of the world landlines in Africa and Less than three percent of the world’s Internet subscribers are located in Africa. This means that taking into account the populations of Africa, only1.3 percent of the inhabitants were sub-scribers to an Internet Service Provider. (Avila 2009). Nigeria is considered the most populated nations of the African continent. With all this high need of ICT yet less laid structures to cater for it. The internet broadband in Nigeria is provided at a very high cost, with few people being able to afford.
The latest United Nations figures show that more than 70 percent of Nigerians populations live on less than one dollar a day. This figure means most of the populace had to go for other means lively hood and view gadgets like internet as an opportunity cost. That is, what can be forgone for another necessity of life like food, and school fees. Until recently computer and internet are seen as the instrument of the rich in Nigeria.
Another challenge in internet in Nigeria is the distribution of acess, Tele-density in the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa is rather low, in rural areas. Many people are living in rural areas. Estimation in 2004, shows that around two-thirds of population in the region resides in rural areas. Efforts are being carried out to include small villages to use some form of ICTs, however, there is lots to be done in this field. Furthermore, it is estimated that 55% of villages’ population are unconnected without access to fixed, mobile and/or data ser-vices (Avila 2009).
Internet connectivity and the host computer all depend on power. Nigeria’s greatest deterrence to development is power, lack of it has made every activity not feasible and where feasible very expansive. People have to buy private sources of energy to power their computers. And internet service provider will have to install two electricity generating sets as a backup source of power to be able to provide effective services. Therefore most instant massages like the voice over IP may not be easy, because if on your side you have provided the energy to power your computer and internet, the other party may be out of power.
Lack of awareness on the benefits of internet and things like emails, is also another challenge in the use of internet in Nigeria. It is not uncommon to see students and people not having the know how to operate a computer or work on the internet. Most people see it as an alien machine.
CONCLUSION
The challenges in the use of internet, e-mail, video conferencing and voice over IP in socio economic Nigeria are numerous. However it is not insurmountable. It is important for the policy makers of Nigeria to focus on the provision and expansion of the internet access. And as well make the access to internet easy. Expanding access to broadband services is a challenge and a chance for Nigeria to benefit from the Information Society. Therefore the establishment of access to the global backbones will be crucial for the development of Nigeria’s telecommunication markets as well as to other sectors.
References
AVILA, Alfonso (2009) Underdeveloped ICT areas in Sub-Saharan Africa
Informatics Economică vol. 13, no. 2/2009
ERDIL, Erkan et al (2009) Does ICT Sustain Economic Growth? The Underdeveloped and Developing Countries Case: Working papers in Economics Department of Economics Izmir University of Economics
Comer, Douglas E. Internet, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Frieden, Robert. Telecommunications, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Moore, Michael G. Distance Education, Microsoft Encarta 2009. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.
Rourke, John T (2005) International Politics on the world stage: McGraw Hill, New York 2005
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